Wizard Recipes

As a cook ,you have a choice of many kinds of vegetables and many cooking methods. Not surprisingly, then, you are also faced with the necessity of learning many rules for cooking vegetables.

Many guides to vegetable cookery simply present a long list of rules to memorize. You will be able to understand the principles more easily, however, if you first learn how vegetables change as they are cooked and how to control those changes.

In other words ,it is suggested you not just memorize what to do but understand why you do it. Cooking affects vegetables in four ways. It changes the following:

1. Texture.

2. Flavor.

3. Color.

4. Nutrients.

How much these four characteristics change determines whether your final product is attractive and delicious to the customer or whether it ends up in the garbage. You can control these changes if you understand how they happen.

Unfortunately, there is still legitimate controversy among chefs about proper vegetable cooking techniques. Modern technology has not yet solved all the problems that experienced chefs tackle successfully every day in the kitchen.

CONTROLLING TEXTURE CHANGES

Changing the texture is one of the main purposes of cooking vegetables.

FIBER

The fiber structures of vegetables (including cellulose and pectins) give them shape and firmness. Cooking softens some of these components.

The amount of fiber varies

1. In different vegetables. Spinach and tomatoes have less than carrots and turnips, for example.

2. In different examples of the same vegetables. Old, tough carrots have more fiber than young, fresh carrots.

3. In the same vegetable. The tender tips of asparagus and broccoli have less fiber than their tougher stalks.

Fiber is made firmer by

1. Acids.

Lemon juice, vinegar and tomato products, when added to cooking vegetables, extend the cooking time.

2. Sugars.

Sugar strengthens cell structure.You will use this principle primarily in fruit cookery. For firm poached apples or pears, for example, cook in a heavy syrup. For applesauce, cook apples until soft before sweetening.

Fiber is softened by

1. Heat.

In general, longer cooking means softer vegetables.

2. Alkalis.

Do not add baking soda to green vegetables.Not only does it destroy vitamins but

it also makes the vegetables unpleasantly mushy.

STARCH

Starch is another vegetable component that affects texture.

1. Dry starchy foods like dried legumes (beans, peas, lentils), rice,and macaroni products must be cooked in enough water for the starch granules to absorb moisture and soften. Dried beans are usually soaked before cooking to replace lost moisture.

2. Moist starchy vegetables like potatoes and sweet potatoes have enough moisture of their own, but they must still be cooked until the starch granules soften.

DONENESS

A vegetable is said to be done when it has reached the desired degree of tenderness.

This stage varies from vegetable to vegetable. Some, such as winter squash, eggplant, and braised celery, are considered properly cooked when they are quite soft.

Most vegetables, however, are best cooked very briefly, until they are crisp-tender or al dente (firm to the bite). At this stage of tenderness, they not only have the most pleasing texture

but also retain maximum flavor , color, and nutrients.

CONTROLLING FLAVOR CHANGES

COOKING PRODUCES FLAVOR LOSS

Many flavors are lost during cooking by dissolving into the cooking liquid and by evaporation. The longer a vegetable is cooked, the more flavor it loses.

Flavor loss can be controlled in several ways:

1. Cook for as short a time as possible.

2. Use boiling salted water. Starting vegetables in boiling water shortens cooking time. The addition of salt helps reduce flavor loss.

3. Use just enough water to cover to minimize leaching. Note that this rule contradicts rule 1 in that adding vegetables to a small quantity of water lowers the temperature more, so cooking time is extended..

4. Steam vegetables whenever appropriate. Steam cooking reduces leaching out of flavor and shortens cooking time.

Strong-Flavored Vegetables

With certain strong-flavored vegetables ,it is desirable to lose some of the flavor to make them more appealing to the taste.      These include the onion family (onions, garlic, leeks , shallots),the cabbage family (cabbage , Brussels sprouts ,cauliflower ,broccoli),and some root vegetables (turnips, rutabagas).

When cooking strong-flavored vegetables leave uncovered to allow these flavors to escape ,and use larger amounts of water.

COOKING PRODUCES FLAVOR CHANGES

Cooked vegetables do not taste like raw vegetables because cooking produces certain chemical changes. As long as the vegetables are not overcooked, this change is desirable. It produces the flavors one looks for in vegetable dishes.

Overcooking produces undesirable changes in members of the cabbage family. They develop a strong, unpleasant flavor. Cabbage and its relatives should be cooked quickly, uncovered.

COOKING AND SWEETNESS

Young, freshly harvested vegetables have a relatively high sugar content that makes them taste sweet. As they mature ,or as they sit in storage, the sugar gradually changes to starch. This is especially noticeable in corn, peas, carrots, turnips and beets.

To serve sweet-tasting vegetables:

1. Try to serve young, fresh vegetables that have been stored for as short a time as possible.

2. For older vegetables ,especially those just listed, add a small amount of sugar to the cooking water to replace lost sweetness.

Apricots are familiar to denizens of the Mediterranean, particularly in Turkey. Americans like their apricots fresh, canned, and dried, and each form has its gastronomical and nutritional benefits. The bright orange-yellow color is a dead giveaway that these velvety little fruits are potent sources of beta-carotene in any form.

Dried apricots are a concentrated source of energy and fiber, as well as many other essential vitamins and minerals. Fresh apricots are richer in vitamin C, and when eaten at the peak of ripeness and slightly warmed by the sun, are an utter delight.

The problem with fresh apricots is that they are incredibly delicate and don’t last long. The apricot season in the United States is approximately May through July, but if apricots aren’t grown near you, you may have trouble finding good fresh ones. Ripe apricots are soft and have a lovely apricot aroma.

If apricots are greenish when picked, they will probably spoil before they ripen, but you can attempt to ripen them by storing them at room temperature in a brown paper bag. Dried apricots and cooked or canned apricots are other delicious and nutritious alternatives.

BANANAS

Although you may not think of bananas as being a typical Mediterranean fruit, bananas are a part of the cuisines of Africa and Spain. Descriptions of bananas can be found in Greek texts from the time of Alexander the Great. Spanish missionaries introduced bananas to many parts of the world, and these cousins of the lily (which, incidentally, grow on very tall plants, not trees) exist in many forms and types throughout the world.

Conveniently wrapped in their own package, bananas are a good source of potassium, that mineral needed for our heart to beat normally. When potassium levels fall dangerously low, which can happen during fasting or with severe diarrhea or vomiting, sudden death can occur. Potassium is also involved in maintaining our body’s fluid balance and keeping our cells healthy. (Oranges, dates, and figs are actually richer sources of potassium than bananas.)

Bananas are delicious when the tips are still green, when the flavor is tangier, and at every stage until the skins are quite dark. The riper the banana, the sweeter it tastes. Cooked bananas are even sweeter, and grilled bananas are a delicious dessert, or even a side dish with a main course. Firmer, less ripe bananas are best for grilling or frying, while very ripe bananas mashed to a pulp are a superb addition to baked goods, and can even take the place of some of the fat.

BERRIES

What a glorious category of fruit! Berries are colorful, fun to eat, juicy, delicious, even fun to pick. They are perfect for cooking or eating raw. Freeze them for an icy treat, bake them into bread, or pop them one after another for a snack.

Berries are delicate and they don’t last long, so buy them, rinse them, and eat them immediately-and often. Berries are beloved in the Mediterranean.

Fragrant wild strawberries are a much-anticipated component of produce markets in Italy, and although the strawberries cultivated in the United States are somewhat different, the spirit remains the same.

Blueberries, cultivated in North America, make a lovely Mediterranean-type dessert and are reminiscent of their cousins the lIngonberries, the blueberry’s European (and Mediterranean) equivalent. Plump, juicy blackberries, tangy raspberries, tart, globe-shaped gooseberries, and the all-American cranberry are other delicious choices. (Cranberries are too tart to eat raw for most people, but they are wonderful cooked into recipes.)

The vibrant colors of berries are a giveaway that these juicy fruits, perfect for snacking, are loaded with cancer- fighting phytochemicals.  Flavonoids make blackberries purple-black, blueberries deep blue, and strawberries and raspberries rosy red. Berries are also full of vitamin C, fiber, and folate, all cancer fighters, too. In fact, in the fight against cancer, few foods are more powerful than berries.

Unlike some fruits, berries will last only a day or two in your refrigerator, and a little mold on one berry can transform the whole bowlful into a moldy mess overnight. Even berries untouched by the mold can take on an unpleasant taste. The best choice is to pick your own berries or buy them from a local produce stand or farmer’s market.

Alternatively, berries from the supermarket can be stored layered between paper towels, and lightly rinsed just before serving. Blueberries last slightly longer than other types, such as strawberries, blackberries, and raspberries. Firmer and best used in cooking, cranberries are the exception.

They keep well in the refrigerator and will keep for months in the freezer. When you can’t find them fresh, frozen berries are similarly high in nutrients.

CHERRIES

Although the cherry tree’s unfortunate fate at the hands of little Georgie Washington is the stuff of American legend, cherries have been around for centuries and were probably first domesticated over two thousand years ago in southern Turkey or Greece.

The Romans loved them, and they have been planted and consumed all over Europe for centuries. The cherry varieties most available in the United States are sweet cherries-the popular, mahogany-skinned Bing cherry, the yellow-pink Rainier cherry, the dark red Lambert cherry, and the sweet Vans cherry-and sour cherries, most often used in pie fillings and other cooked desserts. Gaining in popularity are tart-sweet dried cherries.

Cherries are in season in midsummer and arrive at the market fully ripe. They are best handled gently, washed right before eating (when feasible-if not, wash and pat dry, then store in the refrigerator), and eaten as soon as possible.

Choose plump, glossy berries with deep color and strong, intact stems. If you don’t plan to eat your cherries right away, store them in the refrigerator, as you would berries, unrinsed between layers of paper towels, then wrap in plastic or store in an airtight container. Rinse just before serving.

Cherries are rich in quercetin and kaempferol (flavinols), plus other powerful antioxidants. Tart cherries may also have anti-inflammatory properties, making them possible allies in the fight against arthritis pain (the Cherry Marketing Institute suggests eating twenty tart cherries per day to reduce inflammatory pain).

Who can resist a perfectly ripe piece of fruit? Tender, blushing peaches; rosy slices of watermelon; mahogany plums dripping with garnet-colored juice; crisp, crunchy apples; luscious, sunny oranges; sweet, mellow bananas; succulent berries in a rainbow of hues.

Few things are more pleasurable than eating really good fruit. So why don’t we eat more, and why do we so often fall short of the recommended absolute minimum of two servings of fruit per day? Why do Americans seem to prefer a box of store-bought cookies or cake from a mix for dessert?

In the traditional Mediterranean diet, fruit is a meal’s crowning glory, the ultimate finish to a delicious dinner. The Mediterranean climate is perfect for growing a wide variety of fruits, and whatever is freshest, juiciest, loveliest, and in season provides the final flourish to meals already rich in color, texture, flavor, vitamins, minerals, fiber, phytonutrients, and good old-fashioned pleasure.

Fruits are full of great nutrition. Most fruits are high in that ever-helpful and healthful antioxidant vitamin C (for more on the antioxidant powers of vitamin C ). All fruits are full of essential vitamins and minerals, as well as fiber (more on fiber in Chapter Six).

Many contain high doses of carotenoids and other phytochemicals such as caffeic acid and coumarins, which help the body to rid itself of carcinogens; ferulic acid, which may help to shuttle potentially carcinogenic nitrates out of the body; cryptoxanthin, a carotenoid associated with decreased cervical cancer risk; and flavonoids.

Additionally, many studies have linked high fruit consumption (in conjunction with high vegetable consumption or on its own) with lower rates of certain cancers. A study published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition examined the specific effect of fruit consumption on cancer, and found “strong protective effects . . . for cancers of the upper digestive and respiratory tracts,” as well as a lesser effect “on cancers of the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, and larynx.” The study also found that the farther a tumor was from the digestive tract, the weaker the protective effect of fruit.

Nonetheless, the study also found “significant protective effects of fruit . . . for cancers of the liver, pancreas, prostate, and urinary tract.”

Yet, despite fruit’s demonstrated healthfulness and great taste, in America, eating desserts higher in both refined sugar and fat than a simple piece of fruit seems to be the norm. A fancy pastry, a chocolate sundae, or a candy bar are weekly, even daily treats for many.

Such high-sugar, highfat fare is only an occasional treat in the traditional Mediterranean diet, never a daily or even a weekly indulgence.

While people in some parts of the Mediterranean enjoy a small bite of something sweet during the late afternoon, rich desserts never follow a meal, and portions are relatively tiny. Fruit appropriately follows a heavily plant-based meal, offering both the fulfillment of that desire for something sweet, fiber to provide a feeling of satiety, and one last dose of nutrients and phytochemicals to send the diner on his or her way.

While a ripe, juicy piece of raw fruit is the ultimate treat, fruit can also be delicious cooked, stewed, or added to recipes.

APPLES

Apples are a part of the cuisines of many countries, and have existed in the Mediterranean as early as the third century b.c.e., when Cato, a Roman writer, mentioned seven different varieties of apples. The Roman Pliny, writing in the first century c.e., names thirty-six varieties of apples in his writings. Caesar’s invading Roman legions are credited with introducing apples to Britain, and the first American settlers brought apple seeds to the New World.

One medium apple has about 80 calories and supplies 5 grams of fiber, more than a serving of oatmeal and about one-fourth the daily fiber recommended by the American Dietetic Association. Most of the fiber in apples is soluble fiber, a substance demonstrated to lower cholesterol levels.

But the benefits don’t stop there. A daily apple may indeed keep the doctor away, especially if that daily apple remains unpeeled. Recent research out of Cornell University has uncovered a host of phytochemicals in apple skins, including the flavonoids known as quercetin glycoside, phloretin glycoside, chlorogenic acid, and epicatechin, most heavily con centrated in the skin.

Apples have been shown to exhibit higher antioxidant activity than oranges, grapefruits, carrots, spinach, onions, and green peppers, according to the Cornell study. (Wash and rinse apples well with vinegar and water if they aren’t organically grown.)

Yet Americans only eat, on average, an apple every three days. Apples are one of the hardier fruits that keep well and ship well, and compared to many fruits, they are amazingly long-lived. This durability adds to apples’ convenience. You can buy them in bulk and eat them, as long as they are stored in a cool, dry place, for months.

Some apples can keep for six months or more (such as the popular Red Delicious) under the right conditions. What food could be more convenient than an apple?

Look for apples with firm flesh and without bruises, soft spots, depressions, cuts and nicks, or little holes. If the inside flesh is showing and has been exposed to the air, vitamins and minerals may have been destroyed. Apples grown locally or regionally are great if you can get them.

Big or small, apples can be surprisingly sweet and juicy. Color varies among apple varieties. Red Delicious, for example, are a bright or deep red, while Gala apples are yellow overlaid with a rosier red.

Avoid apples with a brilliant shine. Lots of shine probably means lots of wax, which traps pesticides. If you can find only waxed apples, peel them before eating. Whether you peel or not, wash all apples with vinegar and water, and scrub with a brush. Cut out any bruises or nicks.

Apples last longer in the refrigerator and ripen faster at room temperature (as is the case with many fruits). Some of the more widely available apple types, all great for eating out of hand, are Braeburn, Empire, Fuji, Gala, Golden Delicious, Granny Smith (also perfect for pies), Jonagold,

Jonathan, McIntosh, Red Delicious, Rome Beauty (also ideal for baking), and Winesap. Many other types exist, too. Check your local market, produce stand, or grocery store.

Apples are widely available all year round in the United States, and the many types, flavors, colors, and uses make them irresistible. Shouldn’t you be eating more?

The versatility, the popularity, and the relatively low cost of poultry  items make them ideal for all kinds of food service operations, from elegant restaurants to cafeterias and fast-food restaurants. Also, chicken and turkey are popular among diet-conscious people because they are lower in fat and cholesterol than other meats.

Game birds, such as pheasant, are also increasing in popularity and availability because they are now raised domestically by many producers. Farm-raised game birds are similar, in many ways, to chicken, so learning techniques for cooking and handling chicken teaches you a great deal about handling these other birds as well.

Learning about poultry is, in some ways, easier than learning about meats like beef and lamb. Because chickens, turkeys, and other poultry are much smaller, they are not cut up in such detail.

However, poultry has its own cooking problems, so it is important to observe both the similarities and the differences between meat and poultry.

COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE

The flesh of poultry and game birds is muscle tissue, as is the flesh of beef, lamb, veal, pork and game. Its composition and structure are essentially the same as those of meat.

Remember that muscle tissue is composed of

Water (about 75 percent)

Protein (about 20 percent)

Fat (up to 5 percent)

Other elements, including carbohydrate, in small quantities

Remember that muscles consist of muscle fibers held together in bundles by connective tissue.

MATURITY AND TENDERNESS

We know that the tenderness of a piece of meat-or poultry-is related to connective tissue and that connective tissue increases with

• Use or exercise of the muscle.

• Maturity or age of the animal or bird.

1. Use or exercise is of less concern in poultry. Most poultry is so young that it is relatively tender throughout. However, there are some differences , between light meat and dark meat.

2. Maturity is a major consideration when selecting poultry. Young, tender birds are cooked by dry-heat methods, such as broiling, frying, and roasting, as well as by moist-heat methods. Older, tougher birds need slow, moist heat to be made palatable.

Maturity is the major factor in categorizing each kind of poultry. Skin color is determined by diet and is not related to the flavor or tenderness of the poultry.

FREE-RANGE CHICKENS

Most chickens on the market are produced by large operations that house their poultry indoors in carefully controlled environments and feed them scientifically monitored diets. This process enables the industry to raise healthy chickens quickly and in large numbers to meet the great demand. Many people feel that these chickens lack flavor because they are not allowed to move around outdoors. Some farmers, in response, offer free-range chickens, which are allowed to move around freely and eat outdoors in a more natural environment.

It is important to note that there is no legal definition of free-range, and that freerange chickens are considerably more expensive than ordinary chickens. Many people, however, feel that free-range chickens are more flavorful and are worth the extra cost.

Because quality varies from producer to producer, it is necessary to do careful taste testing to determine whether you want to purchase free-range poultry for your operation

A term related to free-range is organic, which has recently been defined by the USDA as food produced without using most conventional pesticides, fertilizers made with synthetic ingredients or sewage sludge, bioengineering, or ionizing radiation.

LIGHT MEAT AND DARK MEAT

Poultry is not divided into as many small cuts as are meats. Chicken and turkey, however, are usually thought of as consisting of two kinds of parts, depending on the color of the meat. These color differences reflect other differences:

“Light meat”-breast and wings

Less fat

Less connective tissue

Cooks faster

“Dark meat”-legs (drumsticks and thighs)

More fat

More connective tissue

Takes longer to cook

Duck, goose and squab have all dark meat, but the same differences in connective tissue hold true.

The dark color of dark meat is due to a protein called myoglobin. This protein stores oxygen for muscles to use during periods of great activity. The breast muscles of birds are used for flying, and because chickens and turkeys rarely, if ever, fly, these muscles don’t need a great deal of myoglobin.

In flying birds, such as ducks, the breast muscles have more myoglobin and thus are darker. Active muscles, in addition to being darker, also have more connective tissue.

The cook must observe these differences when preparing poultry.

1. Cooking whole birds.

Everyone has tasted chicken or turkey breast so dry it was difficult to swallow. In fact, light meat is overcooked more often than not because it cooks faster than the legs and is done first. In addition, the breast has less fat than the legs, so it tastes much drier when cooked (or overcooked).

A major problem in roasting poultry is cooking the legs to doneness without overcooking the breast. Chefs have devised many techniques to help solve this problem. Here are some of them.

• Roasting breast down for part of the roasting period. Gravity draws moisture and fat to the breast rather than away from it.

• Basting with fat only, not with water or stock. Fat protects against drying, but moisture washes away protective fat.

• Barding, or covering the breast with a thin layer of pork fat.This is usually done with lean game birds.

• Separating breast from leg sections and roasting each for a different time.

This is often done with large turkeys.

2. Cooking poultry parts.

Many recipes have been devised especially for certain poultry parts, such as wings, drumsticks, and boneless chicken breasts. These recipes take into account the different cooking characteristics of each part. For example, flattened boneless chicken breasts can be quickly sautéed and remain juicy and tender. Turkey wings, when

braised, release enough gelatin to help make a rich sauce.

Many of these items have especially high customer appeal, especially boneless chicken breast, and are served in the most elegant restaurants.

Those that use cut-up whole chickens can easily be adapted for specific parts. For example, you may want to buy whole chickens, braise the leg sections, and reserve the breasts for other preparations.

Restaurateurs and chefs are becoming more and more attentive to people’s health and diet concerns. Many of them are reexamining their menus, modifying their cooking practices, and adding new, healthful items to their menus. Some have developed new menus that are specially planned to follow as closely as possible the eight recommendations listed here.

An increased health consciousness has affected the way we think about food and the way we cook. Professional cooks are making their foods more healthful in several ways:

1. Using less fat in cooking.

Cooking methods that require no added fat, such as simmering, poaching , baking, steaming, and grilling, can be considered the most healthful. For sautéing, nonstick pans are becoming more widely used because little or no fat is needed. With regular pans, one can be careful to use as little fat as possible.

Grilling is popular because it can be done without first coating the food with fat. If this is done, however, one must be careful not to let the food dry out. Using less fat in cooking also means using ingredients with less fat. Excess external

fat can be trimmed from meats and poultry. Low-fat sauces, such as salsas and vegetable purées, can often be used instead of high-fat sauces. Recipes can often be modified so that quantities of high-fat ingredients, such as butter, cheese, and bacon, are reduced.

2. Using unsaturated fats.

When you do use fats, try to substitute monounsaturated fats, such as olive oil or canola oil, for saturated fats when appropriate.

3. Emphasizing flavor.

Taste is the most important factor in preparing nutritious food. The most vitamin packed dish does no one any good if it is uneaten because it doesn’t taste good.

Preparing flavorful foods requires knowledge of the principles of cooking. You can’t rely simply on nutritional information. Rely more on the natural flavors of foods and less on salt and other additives that should be decreased in the diet.

4. Using the freshest, highest-quality foods possible.

In order to prepare delicious foods with little or no added salt and with less reliance on high-fat, high-sodium sauces and condiments, it is important to use high quality natural ingredients at their peak of flavor. Healthful cooking means letting the true flavors of foods dominate.

To enhance natural flavors without added salt, cooks are using more fresh herbs, hot seasonings such as chilies, ginger, and pepper, and flavorful ingredients like garlic, browned onions, and flavored vinegars.

5. Storing foods properly.

Foods in storage lose nutrients as they age. The loss of nutrients can be slowed, however, by proper storage. This applies particularly to proper refrigeration. For each category of perishable food discussed in this book, pay close attention to how the foods should be stored.

6. Modifying portion sizes.

It is not necessary to feature huge slabs of meat to serve satisfying meals. Smaller portions of well-trimmed meat, poultry ,or fish, nicely balanced on the plate with an assortment of attractive fresh vegetables and complex carbohydrates, are likely to be more healthful.

Sauces often get the blame for adding calories to a meal, but if a sauce is flavorful, you don’t need much. Make a better sauce and serve less of it. Also, if a sauce isn’t too thick, it won’t cling as heavily to the food, and a little will go farther.

7. Giving your family a healthful choice.

Offer a menu with a variety of foods so that everyone can choose a well-balanced meal suited to their needs and desires. It’s not necessary to cook only “diet food,” but a menu that offers French fries as the only available starch is not well balanced.

Place more emphasis on fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. Offer a menu with choices from all the groups in the USDA food pyramid or the Canadian rainbow, with a variety of choices from the bottom half of the pyramid or the outer rings of the rainbow. Be flexible in the kitchen..

8. Using nutritional information.

Study the nutritional content of foods in order to plan healthful menus. Many publications are available that list the nutritional content of common food items. Some restaurants have even hired registered dietitians to analyze their menus and give advice on how to make their food more healthful.

Hiring a dietitian is, of course, not practical for every operation.

On the other Hand ,a basic awareness of nutrition helps every professional minimize the fat, cholesterol, and sodium in and maximize the nutritional content and balance of the foods they serve.

In order to stay healthy, we must consume a varied diet that contains all the essential nutrients. In addition, we must limit our intake of foods that can be harmful in large quantities. Although researchers still have much to learn about nutrition and our knowledge is constantly changing,there is strong evidence about what good eating patterns are.

According to government health agencies, the following guidelines are suggested for maintaining a healthful diet. It should be noted that these are only general recommendations for people who are already healthy and want to stay that way. They are not necessarily for those who need special diets because of disease or other abnormal conditions.

1. Getting Adequate Nutrients Within Calorie Needs

The greater the variety of nutrient-dense foods and beverages within and among the basic food groups we consume, the more likely we are to get all the nutrients we need. Choosing nutrient-dense foods and avoiding empty calories is necessary in order for us to get adequate nutrition without consuming too many calories in the process. Choose foods that limit the intake of saturated and trans fats, cholesterol, added sugars, salt,and alcohol.

2. Managing Weight

To maintain a healthy body weight, balance the calories you consume with the calories you burn. People who are greatly overweight are more likely to develop certain chronic diseases, such as high blood pressure, heart disease and stroke. People who consume more calories than they burn off will gain weight.

To prevent gradual weight gain, make small decreases in the calories you consume and increase your physical activity. Rather than depending on crash diets, it is usually better to lose weight slowly and gradually, to develop better habits of eating, and to increase physical activity.

To get all the nutrients you need while cutting down on calories, cut down on foods that are high in calories but low in nutrients, especially fat and fatty foods, sugar and sweets and alcohol.

3. Engaging in Physical Activity

Engaging in regular physical activity promotes health, psychological well-being, and a healthy body weight. For general health and reducing the risk of chronic diseases, getting at least 30 minutes of moderately vigorous exercise every day is desirable, and more and longer vigorous exercise can be even more beneficial.

In order to avoid gaining weight, adults should try to get 60 minutes of exercise most days, while at the same time not consuming too many calories. For those who wish to lose weight gradually,try to get 60 to 90 minutes of exercise most days, again while limiting calorie intake.

4. Selecting from the Right Food Groups

Fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and low-fat or fat-free milk and milk products are the foods with the highest nutrient density. These foods should be strongly emphasized in a healthy diet. In particular, someone who consumes 2,000 calories a day should try to eat the following daily:

• 2 cups (4 servings) of fruit, selecting from a variety of fruits.
• 21?2 cups (5 servings) of vegetables, selected from as many of the basic vegetable groups as possible: dark green vegetables, orange vegetables, legumes, starchy vegetables and others.
• 3 servings of whole grains.
• 3 cups of fat-free or low-fat milk or its equivalent in other dairy products, such as yogurt and cheese.

In the United States, these food groups, along with others including meats, poultry, and fish, form what is known as the food guide pyramid.

5. Manage Consumption of Fats

Keep total fat intake between 20 and 35 percent of calories, with most fats coming from sources of polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, such as fish, nuts, and vegetable oils. This means that for a diet of 2,000 calories daily, calories from fat should be between 400 and 700.

Why not lower than 20 percent? Remember that some fatty acids are essential nutrients, and fats also carry fat-soluble vitamins. Consuming less fat than 20 percent of daily calories could be unhealthy.

Keep consumption of saturated fats, especially trans fats, as low as possible.Consume less than 10 percent of calories from saturated fatty acids.Consume less than 300 mg of cholesterol per day.

When selecting and preparing meat, poultry,dry  beans and milk or milk products, make choices that are lean, low-fat, or fat-free.

Remember: High fat intake, especially of saturated fats and cholesterol, is associated with such conditions as heart disease and high blood pressure. Although  other factors contribute to these diseases, such as heredity and smoking, following this dietary recommendation should increase the chances of staying healthy.

6. Manage Consumption of Carbohydrates

Choose fiber-rich fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. These foods are the sources of the most healthful carbohydrates. Avoid prepared foods high in added sugars.

Reducing refined sugars and starches in the diet has the added benefit of helping reduce tooth decay.

7. Manage Consumption of Sodium and Potassium

Consume less than 2,300 mg (approximately 1 tsp or 5 mL of salt) of sodium per day. Sodium appears to contribute to high blood pressure. For people who already have high blood pressure, it is especially important to cut down on sodium in the diet. The best ways to do this are to decrease the use of salt in the kitchen and at the table and to limit the intake of prepared foods that are high in salt, such as potato chips, salted nuts, pretzels, pickled foods ,cured meats ,and salty condiments like soy sauce.

Reduce the harmful effects of sodium by eating potassium-rich foods, such as fruits and vegetables.

8. Manage Consumption of Alcoholic Beverages

People who choose to drink alcoholic beverages should do so sensibly and in moderation- defined as the consumption of up to one drink per day for women and up to two drinks per day for men.

Alcoholic beverages are high in calories while providing few other nutrients.

Heavy drinking may cause a variety of serious diseases. Moderate drinking-one or two drinks a day-appears to do little harm and may, in fact, be of some benefit.

Many people, including children and adolescents, pregnant and lactating women, people taking medications that interact with alcohol, and people with certain medical conditions, should avoid alcohol completely.

In addition, alcoholic beverages should be avoided by people engaging in activities that require attention, skill, or coordination, such as driving or operating machinery.

Nutrients are certain chemical compounds that are present in foods and that fulfill one or more of the following functions:

• Supply energy for body functions.
• Build and replace cells that make up body tissues.
• Regulate body processes.

There are six categories of nutrients:

• Carbohydrates
• Fats
• Proteins
• Vitamins
• Minerals

• Water

Proteins

Proteins are known as the building blocks of the body. They are essential for growth, for building body tissues, and for basic body functions. They can also be used for energy if the diet does not contain enough carbohydrates and fats.

Proteins consist of substances called amino acids. The body is able to manufacture many of them, but there are nine amino acids it cannot manufacture and must get from foods. A food protein that contains all nine essential amino acids is called a complete protein. Meats, poultry, fish, egg and dairy products contain complete proteins.

Proteins that lack one or more of these essential amino acids are called incomplete proteins. Foods high in incomplete proteins include nuts, grains, and dried beans and other legumes. Foods that, if eaten together, supply all the amino acids are called complementary proteins.

For example, cornmeal tortillas topped with chili beans supply complete protein because the corn supplies the amino acids lacking in the beans. Beans and rice is another example of a food combination supplying complementary proteins.

The average adult needs about 50 to 60 grams of protein a day. For most North Americans, getting enough protein daily is not a problem; most get about twice as much as they need. Greatly excessive protein in the diet can lead to a variety of health problems, including kidney and liver damage.

Vitamins

Vitamins are present in foods in extremely small quantities, but they are essential for regulating body functions. Unlike proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, they supply no energy, but some of them must be present in order for energy to be utilized in the body.

Also, lack of certain vitamins causes deficiency diseases.

Vitamins are classified as water soluble and fat soluble. The water-soluble vitamins (the B vitamins and vitamin C) are not stored in the body and must be eaten every day.

Foods containing these vitamins should be handled so the vitamins are not dissolved into the cooking water and lost.

Fat-soluble vitamins (A,D, E and K) can be stored in the body, so they do not need to be eaten every day as long as the total amount eaten over time is sufficient.

Consuming too much of a fat-soluble vitamin daily, as sometimes happens when people take too many vitamin supplements, can result in toxic levels of the vitamin stored in the tissues.

Minerals

Minerals, like vitamins, are consumed in very small quantities and are essential for regulating certain body processes. Minerals that must be consumed in relatively large amounts-more than 100 milligrams daily-are called major minerals. These include calcium ,chloride, magnesium, phosphorus, sulfur, sodium and potassium. Minerals that must be present in smaller amounts are called trace minerals. These include chromium copper, fluoride, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium and zinc.

Less is known about the functions of some of the trace minerals. It is important to understand, however, that although small quantities are needed by the body, too much of any of them can be harmful.

Sodium, a component of table salt, is well known as a health problem. Too much sodium is thought to contribute to high blood pressure. Health authorities try to convince people to reduce the sodium in their diets, primarily by salting foods less.

Water

The adult human body is 50 to 60 percent water by weight. Water plays a role in all the body’s functions, including metabolism and other cell functions, digestion, delivery of nutrients, removal of waste, temperature regulation, and lubrication and cushioning of joints and tissues.

Water forms a large part of most of the food we eat and all the beverages we drink.

The body is good at regulating its own water content and tells us when we need more by making us feel thirsty. This signal should not be ignored. Even better is to drink enough fluids to prevent feeling thirsty. Required daily water intake varies greatly from person to person, depending on age, level of activity, and environmental factors such as heat.

The common recommendation of 8 glasses of water a day is not enough for some people, such as athletes and others who exercise strenuously, and is too much for others, such as older, sedentary adults.

Nutrients are certain chemical compounds that are present in foods and that fulfill one or more of the following functions:

• Supply energy for body functions.
• Build and replace cells that make up body tissues.
• Regulate body processes.

There are six categories of nutrients:

• Carbohydrates
• Fats
• Proteins
• Vitamins
• Minerals
• Water

CALORIES

The calorie is a unit of measurement of energy. It is defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1°C. Remember that one of the functions of nutrients is to supply energy to the body.

The calorie is used to measure how much energy certain foods supply for these functions. In our overfed society, calories have come to be viewed as something to be avoided. Nevertheless, without sufficient food energy, we could not live.

Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats can be used by the body to supply energy.

1 gram of carbohydrate supplies 4 calories

1 gram of protein supplies 4 calories

1 gram of fat supplies 9 calories

There is a direct connection between calorie intake, physical activity, and weight gain. Simply put, if you consume more calories than you burn, you gain weight. If you consume fewer calories than you burn, you lose weight. All the diet schemes and fashions in the world-at least the ones that are medically sound-can be reduced to this.

In other words, losing weight is possible only by eating fewer calories, by burning more calories through exercise, or, preferably, by both.

In order to lose weight while maintaining good nutrition and health, one should avoid empty calories as much as possible and eat primarily foods of high nutrient density.Empty calorie foods are those that provide few nutrients per calorie. Refined sugars and starches are examples of empty calories. Foods of high nutrient density are those that have relatively many nutrients per calorie. Fruits,vegetables,and whole grains are examples of foods with high nutrient density.

KINDS OF NUTRIENTS AND THEIR IMPORTANCE

Each of the nutrients listed has certain characteristics and functions in the body.These are discussed below in general terms.. Many fad diets emphasize either the good or the bad qualities of one particular nutrient.

For example,a particular weight loss diet may advise eating mostly protein foods and eliminating carbohydrates as much as possible. However, because all nutrients are essential, such diets can lead to nutritional imbalances. Thus, it is necessary to understand the function and importance of all nutrients.

The amount of each nutrient needed daily varies from person to person, depending on such factors as age, sex, general  health, and level of activity.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms bound together in chains of varying lengths.

Sugars are simple carbohydrates. Simple sugars, such as glucose, are small compounds containing 6 carbon atoms.Table sugar, or sucrose, is a larger sugar molecule with 12 carbon atoms. Sugars are found in sweets and, to a lesser extent, in fruits and vegetables.

Starches are complex carbohydrates consisting of long chains of simple sugars bound together.They are found in such foods as grains, bread,peas and beans, and many vegetables and fruits. Carbohydrates are the body’s most important source of food energy. Fats and proteins can also be burned for energy, but the body uses carbohydrates first. If no carbohydrates are available,the body then burns fat.

However, if fats are burned with no carbohydrates present, toxic compounds called ketone bodies are produced. If too many ketone bodies accumulate, a condition called ketosis develops, and the blood becomes unable to carry oxygen properly.The result can be fatal. Thus, one of the important functions of carbohydrates is to help the body burn fat properly. About 50 to 100 grams of carbohydrates are needed every day to prevent ketosis.

Most authorities believe that complex carbohydrates, especially those from whole grains and unrefined foods, are better for you than simple carbohydrates.This is partly because starchy foods also have many other nutrients,while sweets have few other nutrients.

Also, there is some evidence that a lot of sugar in the diet may contribute to heart and circulatory diseases. Simple sugars and refined starches are primary sources of empty calories.

Another reason that carbohydrates from whole grains and unrefined foods are preferable to those from refined sugars and starches is that these unrefined foods are sources of fiber. The term fiber refers to a group of carbohydrates that cannot be absorbed and used by the body. Therefore,fiber supplies no food energy. However,it is important for the proper functioning of the intestinal tract and the elimination of body waste.

In addition, there is evidence that sufficient dietary fiber helps prevent some kinds of cancers and helps decrease cholesterol in the blood. Fruits and vegetables, especially raw,and whole grains supply dietary fiber.

Fiber can be classified as either soluble or insoluble.Soluble fiber absorbs water and forms a kind of gel. It is found inside and between plant cells.Insoluble fiber also absorbs water, but less, and forms bulk in the intestines. It is found in cell walls and other structural parts of plants.

Fats

Fats supply energy to the body in highly concentrated form. Also, some fatty acids are necessary for regulating certain body functions.Third, fats act as carriers of fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A,D, E, and K). Because of these important functions, it is necessary to have some fats in the diet.

Fats may be classified as saturated, monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated. These terms reflect chemical differences in the composition of fats. Cooks do not need to know the chemical structure of fats, but they should understand their nutritional characteristics and the foods in which they are found. Many foods contain a combination of these three types,with one type predominating.

Saturated fats are solid at room temperature. Animal products-meats, poultry, fish,  eggs, dairy products-and solid shortenings are the major source of saturated fats.Tropical oils such as coconut oil and palm kernel oil are also rich in saturated fats.

Health experts believe these fats contribute significantly to heart disease and other health problems.Polyunsaturated fats and monounsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature.

Although too much of any kind of fat is unhealthy,these fats are considered more healthful than saturated fats.Polyunsaturated fats are found in vegetable oils such as corn oil, safflower oil,sunflower oil,and cottonseed oil.High levels of monounsaturated fats are found in olive oil and canola oil.

Both kinds of unsaturated fats are also found in other plant products as well,including whole grains,nuts,and some fruits and vegetables.

One group of saturated fats of special concern is trans fats.These fats occur naturally in small amounts only. Most of the trans fats in our diets are from manufactured fats subjected to a process called hydrogenation. Hydrogenated fats are fats that are changed from liquid to solid by adding hydrogen atoms to the fat molecules.

This is the process used to make products such as solid shortening and margarine.Trans fats are of concern because they limit the body’s ability to rid itself of cholesterol that builds up on the walls of arteries

Fats are members of a group of compounds called lipids. Another lipid found in the body is cholesterol, a fatty substance that has been closely linked with heart disease because it collects on the walls of arteries and blocks the flow of blood to the heart and other vital organs.

It is found only in animal products and is especially high in egg yolks, butterfat, and organ meats such as liver and brains. In addition, the human body can manufacture its own cholesterol, so not all the cholesterol in the blood is necessarily from foods.

Although some cholesterol is necessary for body functions,it is not considered a nutrient because the body is able to manufacture all the cholesterol it needs. Experts generally agree it is best to keep the cholesterol in the diet as low as possible.

Recent research has suggested that monounsaturated fat may actually lower the levels of the most harmful kinds of cholesterol in the body.This may explain the relatively low incidence of heart disease in Mediterranean regions, where olive oil is the most widely used fat.This research has helped popularize the use of olive oil in other parts of the world, especially in North America.

Remember,however, that too much fat of any kind is bad for the health. Do not make the mistake of thinking that monounsaturated fats are good for you and can be used in excess.

The popularity of soups today may be due to increased nutrition consciousness, to a desire for simpler or lighter meals, or to an increased appreciation of how appetizing and satisfying soups can be. Whatever the reasons, they emphasize the importance of soup-making skills.

Soup, according to the dictionary, is a liquid food derived from meat, poultry, fish, or vegetables. This definition is all right as far as it goes, but there’s a lot it doesn’t tell us. Is a stock, straight from the stockpot, a soup? Is beef stew liquid enough to be called soup?

We’re interested more in production techniques than in definitions. However, a few more definitions are necessary before we can go into the kitchen, so we can talk to each other in the same language. Definitions aren’t rules, so don’t be alarmed if you hear other books or chefs use these terms differently. What matters is that you learn the techniques and are able to adapt them to many uses.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOUPS

Soups can be divided into three basic categories: clear or unthickened soups, thick soups, and special soups that don’t fit the first two categories. Most of these soups, no matter what their final ingredients may be, are based on stock

CLEAR SOUPS

Clear soups are all based on a clear, unthickened broth or stock. They may be served plain or garnished with a variety of vegetables and meats.

1. Broth and bouillon are two terms used in many ways. In general,they both refer to simple, clear soups without solid ingredients. We have already know that broth  is a flavorful liquid obtained from the simmering of meats and/or vegetables.

2. Vegetable soup is a clear, seasoned stock or broth with the addition of one or more vegetables and, sometimes, meat or poultry products and starches.

3. Consommé is a rich, flavorful stock or broth that has been clarified to make it perfectly clear and transparent.

Far from being just a plain old cup of broth,a well-made consommé is one of the greatest of all soups. Its sparkling clarity is a delight to the eye, and its rich, full flavor, strength,and body make it a perfect starter for an elegant dinner.

THICK SOUPS

Unlike clear soups, thick soups are opaque rather than transparent. They are thickened either by adding a thickening agent, such as a roux, or by puréeing one or more of their ingredients to provide a heavier consistency.

1. Cream soups are soups that are thickened with roux, beurre manié, liaison, or other added thickening agents, plus milk and/or cream. They are similar to velouté and béchamel sauces-in fact, they may be made by diluting and flavoring either of these two leading sauces. Cream soups are usually named after their major ingredient, such as cream of chicken or cream of asparagus.

2. Purées are soups that are naturally thickened by puréeing one or more of their ingredients. They are not as smooth and creamy as cream soups. dried legumes (such as split pea soup) or from fresh vegetables with a starchy ingredient such as potatoes or rice added. Purées may or may not contain milk or cream.

3. Bisques are thickened soups made from shellfish. They are usually prepared like cream soups and are almost always finished with cream. The term bisque is sometimes used on menus for a variety of vegetable soups. In these cases, it is really a marketing term rather than a technical term, so it is impossible to give a definition that covers all uses.

4. Chowders are hearty soups made from fish, shellfish, and/or vegetables. Although they are made in many ways, they usually contain milk and potatoes.

5. Potage is a term sometimes associated with certain thick,hearty soups,but it is actually a general term for soup. A clear soup is called a potage clair in French.

SPECIALTY AND NATIONAL SOUPS

This is a catch-all category that includes soups that don’t fit well into the main categories and soups that are native to particular countries or regions.

Specialty soups are distinguished by unusual ingredients or methods, such as turtle soup, gumbo, peanut soup, and cold fruit soup. Cold soups are sometimes considered specialty soups, and, in fact, some of them are. But many other popular cold soups, such as jellied consommé, cold cream of cucumber soup, and vichyssoise (vee shee swahz) are simply cold versions of basic clear and thick soups

VEGETARIAN SOUPS AND LOW-FAT SOUPS

A great variety of vegetable-based soups are suitable for vegetarian menus. Vegetable soups for vegans must contain no meat or any other animal product and must be made with water or vegetable stock. To bind thick soups, use a starch slurry or a roux made with oil rather than butter. Lacto-vegetarians,on the other hand,accept soups containing butter, milk,or cream.

Because the appeal of vegetarian vegetable soups depends entirely on the freshness and the quality of the vegetables and not on the richness of meat stocks, be especially careful to use high-quality ingredients and to avoid overcooking.

Clear soups are especially suitable for people seeking low-fat foods. Consommés and clear vegetable soups are virtually fat-free, especially if the vegetables were not sweated in fat before being simmered.

Thick soups can be kept low in fat by thickening them with a slurry of starch (such as arrowroot, potato starch, or cornstarch) and cold water rather than with a roux. For cream soups, reduce or omit the cream and instead use evaporated skim milk.

Purée soups are usually more adaptable than cream soups to low-fat diets because the vegetable purée adds body and richness to the soup without requiring added fat. A little yogurt or evaporated skim milk can be used to give creaminess to a purée soup. Even garnishing a serving of soup with a teaspoonful of whipped cream gives a feeling of richness while adding only a gram or two of fat.

SERVICE OF SOUPS

STANDARD PORTION SIZES

Appetizer portion:6 to 8 oz (200 to 250 mL)

Main course portion:10 to 12 oz (300 to 350 mL)

GARNISH

Soup garnishes may be divided into three groups.

1.      Garnishes in the soup.

Major ingredients, such as the vegetables in clear vegetable soup, are often considered garnishes. This group of garnishes also includes meats, poultry, seafood, pasta products, and grains such as barley or rice. They are treated as part of the preparation or recipe itself, not as something added on.

Consommés are generally named after their garnish, such as consommé brunoise,which contains vegetables cut into brunoise shape [1?8-inch (3-mm) dice].

Vegetable cream soups are usually garnished with carefully cut pieces of the vegetable from which they are made. An elegant way to serve soup with a solid garnish is to arrange the garnish attractively in the bottom of a heated soup plate.This plate is set before the diner, and then the soup is ladled from a tureen by the dining room staff.

2. Toppings.

Clear soups are generally served without toppings to let the attractiveness of the clear broth and the carefully cut vegetables speak for themselves. Occasional exceptions

are toppings of chopped parsley or chives.

Thick soups, especially those that are all one color, are often decorated with a topping. Toppings should be placed on the soup just before service so they won’t sink or lose their fresh appearance. Their flavors must be appropriate to the soup.

Do not overdo soup toppings.The food should be attractive in itself.

Topping suggestions for thick soups:

Fresh herbs (parsley,chives),chopped

Fried herbs, such as parsley, sage, chervil, celery leaves, leek julienne

Fine julienne of vegetables

Sliced almonds,toasted

Grated cheese

Sieved egg yolks

Chopped or riced egg whites

Croutons

Grated parmesan cheese

Crumbled bacon

Paprika

Flavored butters

Flavored oils

Sour cream,crème fraîche,or whipped cream,either plain or flavored with

herbs or spices

3. Accompaniments.

American soups are traditionally served with crackers. In addition to the usual

saltines,other suggestions for crisp accompaniments are:

Melba toast

Corn chips

Breadsticks

Cheese straws

Profiteroles (tiny unsweetened cream-puff shells)

Whole-grain wafers

In principle, roasting meats is a simple procedure. The prepared cut of meat is placed in an oven at a selected temperature, and it is removed when done. What could be easier?

However, there are many variables, and chefs often disagree about proper roasting procedures, especially when it comes to the fine points. In this article, you will learn a roasting procedure that you can apply to most meats. But first we discuss in more detail several of the points of disagreement and some of the possible variations.

SEASONING

Salt added to the surface of meat just before roasting will penetrate the meat only a fraction of an inch during cooking. The same is true of the flavors of herbs, spices,and aromatics.

In the case of smaller cuts of meat, such as beef tenderloin or rack of lamb, the seasoned, browned crust that forms during roasting is an important part of the flavor of the finished dish. Although opinions vary, many chefs advocate seasoning such roasts immediately before roasting so the salt doesn’t have time to draw moisture to the surface, which inhibits browning.

In the case of large roasts, such as beef ribs and steamship rounds, there is so little crust in proportion to meat that seasoning before roasting has little effect. Also, if the surface of the roast is mostly fat covering or bone, the seasoned fat and bones may not even be served, so the seasoning has little effect.

With roasts of any size, two alternatives to seasoning just before roasting are often used:

• Marinate the meat or apply seasonings in advance, to give the time for flavors to penetrate.
• Serve the meat with a flavorful sauce, gravy, or jus. The sauce serves as a seasoning and flavoring for the meat.

Another way to add flavor to roasted meats is to smoke-roast them. Commercial smoker ovens roast meats in the same way as conventional ovens, except that they also have a smoke-generating unit that passes smoke through the oven chamber, flavoring foods as they cook.

The flavor of wood smoke in cooked meats is so popular that some restaurants have even installed wood-burning hearth ovens to bake and roast meats, pizza,and other items.

Stovetop smoke roasting is an alternative to smoker ovens.

TEMPERATURE

Low-Temperature Roasting

It was once thought that starting the roast at a high temperature “seals the pores” by searing the surface,thus keeping in more juices. We now know that this is not the case. Repeated tests have shown that continuous roasting at a low temperature gives a superior product with

1. Less shrinkage.

2. More flavor, juiciness, and tenderness.

3. More even doneness from outside to inside.

4. Greater ease in carving.

Low roasting temperatures generally range from 250° to 325°F (120° to 160°C), depending on

1. The size of the cut. The larger the cut, the lower the temperature. This ensures that the outer portion is not overcooked before the inside is done.

2. The operation’s production schedule. Lower temperatures require longer roasting times,which may or may not be convenient for a particular operation.

Searing

If a well-browned, crusted surface is desired for appearance, such as when the roast is to be carved in the dining room, a roast may be started at high temperature (400° to 450°F/200° to 230°C) until it is browned. The temperature should then be lowered to the desired roasting temperature and the meat roasted until done, as for low temperature roasting.

High-Temperature Roasting

Very small pieces of meat that are to be roasted rare may be cooked at a high temperature, from 375° to 450°F (190° to 230°C).The effect is similar to that of broiling :a well browned, crusted exterior and a rare interior. The meat is in the oven for so short a time  that there is little shrinkage. Examples of cuts that may be roasted at a high temperature are rack of lamb and beef tenderloin.

Convection Ovens

If a convection oven is used for roasting,the temperature should be reduced about 50°F (25°C).Many chefs prefer not to use convection ovens for large roasts because the drying effect of the forced air seems to cause greater shrinkage. On the other hand, convection ovens are effective in browning and are good for high-temperature roasting.

FAT SIDE UP OR FAT SIDE DOWN

Roasting meats fat side up provides continuous basting as the fat melts and runs down the sides. This method is preferred by perhaps the majority of chefs, although there is not complete agreement.

BASTING

Basting is unnecessary if the meat has a natural fat covering and is roasted fat side up. For lean meats, barding has the same effect. Barding is covering the surface of the meat with a thin layer of fat, such as sliced pork fatback or bacon.

If a roast is basted by spooning pan drippings over it, use only the fat.Fat protects the roast from drying, while moisture washes away protective fat and allows drying. Juices used in basting will not soak into the meat.

Basting with drippings or juices may be used to increase the appetite appeal of the roast because it enhances browning. Gelatin and other solids dissolved in the juices are

deposited on the surface of the meat, helping form a flavorful brown crust.

This does not increase juiciness, however. Some cookbooks claim that basting forms a waterproof coating that seals in juices, but this is not the case.

Basting sometimes produces more tender roasts for an unexpected reason: Frequent basting interrupts and slows down the cooking. Every time the oven door is opened, the temperature in the oven drops considerably, so the roasting time is longer and more connective tissue breaks down. Thus, it is not the basting but the lower temperature that increases tenderness.